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Name-bearing Type

• Theobald
• 1901b:234
• Type Species: Toxorhynchites brevipalpis

Classification

• Subfamily Culicinae, tribe Toxorhynchitini. Toxorhynchites is the only genus of tribe Toxorhynchitini. It includes 90 currently recognised species in four subgenera: Afrorhynchus (18 species), Ankylorhynchus (4 species), Lynchiella (16 species) and Toxorhynchites (52 species).

Distribution

• Species of Toxorhynchites are largely confined to tropical regions. A few species occur in the eastern fringes of Asia and North America. Three apparently introduced species are found in Fiji and Samoa in the South Pacific, but the genus is otherwise absent from all oceanic islands, including New Zealand. Subgenus Toxorhynchites occurs only in the Old World, subgenus Afrorhynchus occurs in Africa, and subgenera Ankylorhynchus and Lynchiella are confined to the New World.
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Phylogeny

• Toxorhynchites was traditionally placed a separate subfamily of Culicidae. Belkin (1962) believed that this over-emphasised the peculiar developments found in the genus and regarded it as constituting one of twelve tribes of 'true mosquitoes'. He was convinced that most of the distinctive features of Toxorhynchites are secondary adaptive characters relating to the large size and feeding habits of the adults and larvae. Members of the genus share the un-lobed condition of the scutellum and the presence of a precubital furrow on the wing with Anopheles and Bironella, characters considered to be symplesiomorphic by Colless (1979). Harbach (1977) discussed possible steps in the evolution of feeding behaviour in mosquito larvae and postulated that Toxorhynchites and the Anophelinae were derived from an early common ancestor of the Culicidae. In many respects the adults resemble sabethine mosquitoes in overall ornamentation, reduction of thoracic chaetotaxy, lack of scales on the alula and upper calypter, and structures of the male genitalia. Based on characteristics of the larval labiohypopharynx, Harbach (1978) hypothesised that Toxorhynchites was derived from a sabethine ancestor. Features of larvae, including the absence of a comb and placement of setae on common tubercles, are paralleled in certain sabethines, e.g. Trichoprosopon. The lateral abdominal setae of some Eretmapodites larvae, as well as those of Armigeres (Leicesteria) dolichocephalus, are also borne on conspicuous common tubercles. Toxorhynchites also share the absence of a tracheoid area at the base of the trumpet, the position of setae 2,3-CT and the absence of setae at the apex of the paddle with Sabethini. Belkin believed that the similarities between Toxorhynchites and sabethines were indicative of a close relationship rather than the result of convergence. Whereas Toxorhynchites was paired with Culiseta in the implied weighting analysis of Harbach & Kitching (1998), it was recovered as the sister of Sabethini when all characters in their data set were equally weighted or analyzed using successive approximations character weighting. The phylogeny of the subgenera and species of Toxorhynchites has not been investigated.

Characteristics

• Toxorhynchites includes the largest mosquitoes. Adults are easily recognised by their large size and strongly bent proboscis. The body is covered with brightly coloured iridescent scales and the posterior abdominal segments have lateral scale-tufts. The scutellum is evenly rounded (as in Anopheles and Bironella) and the posterior margin of the wing is distinctly emarginated opposite the termination of vein CuA. Larvae are very large and easily recognized. They vary from pink to red and purple in colour, and possess modified mouth brushes comprised of 10 or fewer thick, flattened filaments for grasping prey. The abdominal setae occur in groups of three to five on common sclerites and a comb and pecten are both absent. Species of Toxorhynchites are remarkably similar in all life stages throughout the world and are difficult to identify. See Toxorhynchitini.

Bionomics

• Toxorhynchites are basically forest mosquitoes. The larval habitats are mainly tree-holes and bamboo, but a few species are found in leaf axils, pitcher plants, rock-pools and artificial containers. The larvae of all species are predacious. They feed mainly on the larvae of other mosquito species, but exhibit cannibalism in the absence of suitable prey. Males and females both feed exclusively on nectar and other sugary substances. The adults are active during the day.

Medical

• Species of Toxorhynchites are not involved in the transmission of human or animal pathogens. The larvae of a few species have been used with some success to control economically important mosquitoes whose larvae inhabit plant cavities and artificial containers.

Important References

Barraud, 1934 (southern Asia) Edwards, 1941 (adults, Afrotropical Region) Hopkins, 1952 (larvae, Afrotropical Region) Lane, 1953 (Neotropical Region) Thurman, 1959 (Thailand) Belkin, 1962 (taxonomy, South Pacific) Forattini, 1965b (Neotropical Region) Cova-García et al., 1966 (Venezuela) Belkin et al., 1970 (New World)

Tanaka et al., 1979 (Japan) Steffan et al., 1980 (annotated bibliography) Steffan & Evenhuis, 1981 (biology) Clark-Gil & Darsie, 1983 (Guatemala) Darsie, 1985 (keys, Argentina) Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985 (subgenus Toxorhynchites) Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986 (Acaudatus Group, Oriental Region) Service, 1990 (Afrotropical Region) Ribeiro, 1991 (Brevipalpis Group, Afrotropical Region)

Included Taxa

Subgenus AFRORHYNCHUS Ribeiro, 1991 aeneus (Evans, 1926) angolensis Ribeiro, 1992 brunhesi Ribeiro, 2004 capelai Ribeiro, 1992 erythrurus (Edwards, 1941) fontenillei Ribeiro, 2004 grjebinei Ribeiro, 2004 helenae Ribeiro, 1992 kaimosi (van Someren, 1946) lemuriae Ribeiro, 2004 lutescens (Theobald, 1901) madagascarensis Ribeiro, 2004 nairobiensis (van Someren, 1946) nigeriensis Ribeiro, 2005 pauliani (Doucet, 1951) ruwenzori (van Someren, 1948) viridibasis (Edwards, 1935) subspecies viridibasis (Edwards, 1935) subspecies voltaicus Ribeiro, 2005 wolfsi Ribeiro, 2005 zairensis Ribeiro, 2005   Subgenus ANKYLORHYNCHUS Lutz, 1904 catharinensis (da Costa Lima, Guitton & Ferreira, 1962) hexacis (Martini, 1931) purpureus (Theobald, 1901) trichopygus (Wiedemann, 1828)   Subgenus LYNCHIELLA Lahille, 1904 bambusicola (Lutz & Neiva, 1913) cavalierii García & Casal, 1967 gerbergi Belkin, 1977 grandiosus (Williston, 1900) guadeloupensis (Dyar & Knab, 1906) haemorrhoidalis (Fabricius, 1787) subspecies haemorrhoidalis (Fabricius, 1787) subspecies separatus (Lynch Arribálzaga, 1891) subspecies superbus (Dyar & Knab, 1906) hypoptes (Knab, 1907) mariae (Bourroul, 1904) moctezuma (Dyar & Knab, 1906)

Subgenus LYNCHIELLA cont., portoricensis (Roeder, 1885) rizzoi (de Deus Palma & Galvão, 1969) pusillus (da Costa Lima, 1931) rutilus (Coquillett, 1896) subspecies rutilus (Coquillett, 1896) subspecies septentrionalis (Dyar & Knab, 1906) solstitialis (Lutz, 1904) theobaldi (Dyar & Knab, 1906) violaceus (Wiedemann, 1820)   Subgenus TOXORHYNCHITES Theobald, 1901 acaudatus (Leicester, 1908) albipes (Edwards, 1922) amboinensis (Doleshall, 1857) angustiplatus Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986 ater (Daniels, 1908) auranticauda Lane, 1992 auripes (Edwards, 1935) barbipes Edwards, 1913 bengalensis Rosenberg & Evenhuis, 1985 bickleyi Thurman, 1959 brevipalpis Theobald, 1901 subspecies brevipalpis Theobald, 1901 subspecies conradti Grünberg, 1907 subspecies abyssinicus Ribeiro, 1991 camaronis Ribeiro, 1991 christophi (Portschinsky, 1884) subspecies aurifluus (Edwards, 1921) subspecies christophi (Portschinsky, 1884) coeruleus (Brug, 1934) dundo Ribeiro, 1991 edwardsi (Barraud, 1924) evansae (Edwards, 1936) funestus (Leicester, 1908) gigantulus (Dyar & Shannon, 1925) gravelyi (Edwards, 1921) indicus Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986

Subgenus TOXORHYNCHITES cont., inornatus (Walker, 1865) subspecies albitarsis (Brug, 1939) subspecies inornatus (Walker, 1865) kempi (Edwards, 1921) klossi (Edwards, 1921) leicesteri Theobald, 1904 lewisi Ribeiro, 1991 macaensis Ribeiro, 1997 magnificus (Leicester, 1908) manicatus (Edwards, 1921) subspecies manicatus (Edwards, 1921) subspecies yamadai (Ôuchi, 1939) manopi Thurman, 1959 metallicus Leicester, 1904 minimus (Theobald, 1905) nepenthicola Steffan & Evenhuis, 1982 nepenthis (Dyar & Shannon, 1925) nigerrmus Dong, Zhou & Gong, 2004 nigripes (Edwards, 1935) okinawensis Toma, Miyagi & Tanaka, 1990 pendleburyi (Edwards, 1930) phytophagus Theobald, 1909 quasiferox (Leicester, 1908) rajah Tsukamoto, 1989 ramalingami Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986 raris (Leicester, 1908) rickenbachi Ribeiro, 1991 rodhaini Ribeiro, 1991 speciosus (Skuse, 1889) splendenroides Dong, Zhou & Gong, 2004 splendens (Wiedemann, 1819) sumatranus (Brug, 1939) sunthorni Thurman, 1959 towadensis (Matsumara, 1916)   Nomen dubium aequatorianus Levi-Castillo, 1953

The materials presented in the Classification, Distribution, Phylogeny, Characteristics, Medical, and Important References sections, and links to subgenera, are reproduced with permission of Mosquito Taxonomic Inventory, moderated by Ralph Harbach on behalf of the contributors who retain copyright. For additional information on reuse parameters, please contact Mosquito Taxonomic Inventory. Images and maps, unless otherwise attributed, and links to the literature are provided by the WRBU.